Answer: a [Reason:] By flowage is understood a downgrade movement of mass along no definite surface of failure. Mass involved in this type of failure is primarily unconsolidated or loosely packed or rendered so by natural processes.

Answer: c [Reason:] Flowage is further distinguished into slow and rapid flowage. In the slow flowage, failure is not easily perceptible. The ground may be moving downslope at such low rates as few centimeters a year or even less.

Answer: a [Reason:] In rapid flowage, however, the movement of failing mass may be easily visible and the mass may travel a few metres or more a day. The conditions causing flowage in the two classes may be closely related or entirely different.

Answer: b [Reason:] A true landslide is a type of mass failure in which a superficial mass fails by moving as a whole along a definite surface of failure. The surface of failure may be planar or semi-circular in outline.

Answer: c [Reason:] It is often characteristic of a landslide that the mass above the failure surface is unstable whereas the material lying below this surface is generally stable.

Answer: d [Reason:] Sliding may involve material of any composition, shape and of varying degree of consolidation: Loose soil, rock fragments and whole blocks or slabs of rock.

Answer: b [Reason:] When the mass involved is hard, brittle and coherent, such as massive igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, shear surfaces are broadly planar in character.

Answer: a [Reason:] In unconsolidated deposits, loose, inherently weak rock masses and weathered top surface, sliding commonly takes place along curved shear surfaces.

Answer: a [Reason:] The surface of failure is generally planar in character, speed of failure is quite rapid and the nature of mass involved in failing may be rock mass, rock slabs, debris and soil cover or even a mixture of all of them.

Answer: a [Reason:] In rotational slides, the failing surface is generally curved in character and the speed of failure is also quite rapid. Because of the nature of the failing surface, the movement of the mass takes the form of a sort of rotation, rather than translation.

Answer: c [Reason:] Rock toppling and falls are grouped along with slides although there may be little or no sliding involved in their failure.

Answer: d [Reason:] Subsidence is defined as sinking or settling of the ground in almost vertically downward direction which may occur because of removal of natural support from the underground or due to compaction of the weaker rocks under the load from overlying mass.

Answer: c [Reason:] The net result in each case is that the surface material is natural ground or artificial fill- suffers a sinking downward movement.

Answer: c [Reason:] In rock toppling and falls, the weather conditions play a very important role compared to other types of sliding. The precipitation, frost action lead to changes in the rocks and lead to rock toppling and falling.

Answer: d [Reason:] In translational slides, the sliding is quite rapid and the nature of mass involved in failing may be a rock, rock slabs, debris etc. These slides are quite frequent on slopes made up of rocks and cohesive soils.

Answer: a [Reason:] A valley, in the geomorphic sense, is a depression or hollow of considerable area extent surrounded on side by two or more elevated tracts. Valleys may be the result of age-long erosion along the medial parts of elevated tracts, or, these might have been produced from a gradual or abrupt subsidence.

Answer: b [Reason:] The erosional valleys are the most common types of the valleys on the Earth. Erosional valleys may be the result of the stream erosion and the glacial erosion. They are accordingly named as River valleys and Glacial valleys.

Answer: c [Reason:] A river valley is the result of down-cutting and bank erosion by the river. Since most of the river erosion processes are concentrated along the bottom of a river channel, especially in the mountainous regions, the resulting river valley has a typical V-shaped cross-section.

Answer: b [Reason:] Weathering of the exposed walls by physical and chemical processes followed by slippage of weathered products into river below under the action of gravity and rainwash, the process is called mass wasting.

Answer: c [Reason:] Incision is the down-cutting along the base of the channel by the river itself and denudation is the modification of valley walls by undercutting, weathering and erosion.

Answer: a [Reason:] Saw cut valleys arise when incision is the major process and denudation is either absent or negligible. A very narrow, almost vertical-walled valley is produced.

Answer: c [Reason:] Exceptionally deep saw cut valleys with slightly opened up tops indicating some denudation are specially referred as Gorges. These are quite common and impressive features of the major Himalayas Rivers in their mountainous tracts.

Answer: a [Reason:] Canyons are those types of gorges where the strata involved in down cutting is essentially horizontal or nearly so. The Grand Canyon of Colorado is a well-known example.

Answer: b [Reason:] The V-shaped valleys may be said to have established a broad equilibrium between the down cutting, slope-denudation and their load carrying capacity. The valleys may or may not be symmetrical in their transverse profile depending upon the type of rocks on the slopes.

Answer: b [Reason:] In the formation of V-shaped valleys, the incision and denudation are approximately equal. In such cases, the valley profile assumes a typical V-shape.

Answer: c [Reason:] When the incision becomes negligible and denudation of slopes is the major process, the result is a flat-floored valley. It is the common profile of a valley in the lower reaches of a river.

Answer: c [Reason:] The nature of valley profile at any section in the course of a river depends on the ratio Incision : Denudation operating in that section. Three broad cases may be considered. Saw cut valleys; V-shaped valleys and flat-floored valleys.

Answer: a [Reason:] Aquifer is defined as a rock mass, layer or formation which is saturated with groundwater and which virtue of its properties is capable of yielding the contained water at economical costs when tapped.

Answer: a [Reason:] Gravels, limestones and sandstones generally form good aquifers when occurring in suitable geological conditions and geographic situations.

Answer: b [Reason:] A rock body or formation which may be porous enough to hold enough quantity of water which by virtue of its other properties does not allow an easy and quick flow through it, is called an aquiclude.

Answer: c [Reason:] Aquiclude is to be treated as a practically impermeable rock mass. Compacted clay formation are the best examples of aquicludes.

Answer: c [Reason:] Aquifuge is an absolutely impermeable rock formation through which there is no possibility of storage or movement of water.

Answer: c [Reason:] Aquifuge is almost free from pores and other interstices. Examples are compact interlocking granites and quartzites.

Answer: d [Reason:] Aquitard is less common term used sometimes for an aquifuge or aquiclude that has become locally leaky due to development of partial perviousness caused because of profuse jointing or cracks.

Answer: b [Reason:] All rocks are neither capable nor suitable for holding and transmitting groundwater. The terms like aquifer, aquiclude, aquifuge need to be understood well for studying the concept of groundwater.

Answer: a [Reason:] Continental shelf is the gently sloping land part that remains partly submerged under seawater. It may be only a narrow strip or quite an extensive area stretching for hundreds of kilometres.

Answer: d [Reason:] Continental slope is the slope starting from the farthest end of the continental shelf and continuing up to sea floor. It may be gentle or very steep in gradient varying between 1 in 4 to 1 in 6.

Answer: a [Reason:] Oscillatory waves are characteristic of deeper portions of the sea. In such waves, each particle moves in a circular orbit.

Answer: b [Reason:] Translatory waves are typically of shallower depths in the sea and abound along the seashore. They are commonly produced after the oscillatory waves break and rush forward.

Answer: c [Reason:] Littoral currents are the bodies of seawater of considerable volume moving along and parallel to the shore.

Answer: d [Reason:] Rip currents are bodies of seawater moving backwards to sea after having reached and struck the seashore. They often move below the surface of the sea and reach varying distance up to the middle to the sea.

Answer: b [Reason:] Charles Darwin, who was the first to study and classify the reef deposits recognized following three types: fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls.

Answer: b [Reason:] Coral reefs are peculiar types of ridge-like marine deposits that have been formed due to accumulation of dead parts of certain of sea-organisms.

Answer: b [Reason:] The barrier reefs are most common type of reefs and occur at a distance from the shore or the island running in the form of parallel, flat-topped ridges.

Answer: c [Reason:] An atoll is essentially an annular, circular or semi-circular coral reef surrounding a central body of water that is as usual called a lagoon. In a typical atoll, the ring made of coral deposits may be continuous or discontinuous, more often broken at places.

Answer: a [Reason:] Baryte is found in massive and crystalline structures or forms and their basic chemical composition is barium sulphate (BaSO₄).

Answer: d [Reason:] Corundum is used as both abrasive and also as precious gemstones. The former is due its high hardness of about 9 and the latter is due its appearance, and the names of some common semi-precious gemstones are ruby, emerald, sapphire etc.

Answer: c [Reason:] Some common forms of corundum used as precious or semi-precious gemstones are ruby, sapphire, oriental emerald and oriental topaz. Diamond is a completely different mineral and is not considered to be a form of corundum.

Answer: c [Reason:] Talc mineral which is basically made of magnesium has the lowest hardness among the minerals which is equal to 1.

Answer: b [Reason:] Olivine is a type of ferro-magnesium mineral which is found in the ultra-basic igneous rocks. Magnesite is also found in the ultra-basic igneous rocks but do not belong to the ferro-magnesium group.

Answer: c [Reason:] Gypsum is found usually in translucent and sometimes in opaque forms. In its pure form it is found in translucent form.

Answer: d [Reason:] Talc has hardness number of about 1, used in talcum powders and is usually found in white or green colour. But it is not considered as a precious gemstone.

Answer: d [Reason:] Augite is a ferro-magnesium mineral and hence its basic and main composition is Fe and Mg. It is usually found in black colour.

Answer: b [Reason:] Asbestose is always found in the flaky or sometimes rarely in columnar form. Else it is not found in any other form or structure.

Answer: b [Reason:] The olivine mineral is found in olive green colour and hence its name. The streak given by olivine is white.

Answer: d [Reason:] Garnet is one of the very few ferro-magnetic minerals which do not give any streak. They are usually dark grey in colour.

Answer: c [Reason:] The corundum is always found in the hexagonal, columnar crystals. The columnar crystals are of appreciable size of about 8 to 10 mm and are not uncommon.